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2 The intestinal barrier 2.1 Structure of intestinal barrier The intestinal barrier is a highly specialized and dynamic structure that regulates the selective absorption of essential nutrients, electrolytes, and water, while simultaneously protecting the host from luminal pathogens, toxins, and antigens (Zhang et al., 2023)

Stimulation of TLR4 generally induces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, modulates expression of associated receptors (e.g., TLR2), and facilitates immune cell recruitment, culminating in coordinated effector immune responses in systemic organs such as the spleen

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The percentages of CD44 hi CD8 + T cells obtained from the brains and dLNs of the A2-APM treated mice were higher than those from native mice (Fig